Type 1 diabetes, also known as insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (“IDDM”), is an autoimmune disease in which the beta (“β”) cells of the pancreatic islets of Langerhans are destroyed as a consequence of inflammatory reactions triggered by activation of T cells specific for β-cell associated antigens (1, 2; see “Reference” section at the end of the document). Data obtained from preclinical animal models of IDDM as well as clinical studies have implicated CD4+ and CD8+ autoreactive T cells as key effectors of islet cell destruction (J. F. Bach, Endocr. Rev., 1994). Despite the availability of insulin replacement therapy to maintain acceptable control of blood glucose levels, chronic insulin replacement therapy is still associated with major side effects including potential for acute hypoglycemia, chronic microvascular disease (retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy) and chronic macrovascular disease (heart disease and stroke) all resulting from the poor fine control of carbohydrate metabolism that can be attained with bolus injection of insulin (Simone et al., Diabetes Care, 22 Suppl. 2.: B7-B15, 1999). These side effects, combined with the high cost, the invasive nature of insulin therapy and the increasing prevalence of IDDM in the developed world, have led to efforts for finding alternative strategies including methods of preventing progression from the inciting autoreactive process to the irreversible loss of over 90% of the islet mass that correlates with clinical presentation of disease.
The non-obese diabetic (“NOD”) mouse develops a spontaneous type 1 diabetes that shares many of the features associated with human IDDM providing a well characterized animal model for this complex autoimmune disease (3). The initial or pre-insulitis stage of disease begins around 3 weeks of age and involves cell infiltration in areas surrounding the pancreatic islets without damage of the β cells (4). The next phase of disease, known as insulitis, begins-around the age of 6 weeks and involves-a gradual increase in cell infiltration which ultimately overcomes the immunoregulatory mechanisms in place leading to a progressive destruction of the β cells (5). Complete loss of insulin production leads to dysregulation of glucose metabolism and overt diabetes can manifest as early as 12 weeks of age (6). It is now well accepted that progression from insulitis to diabetes correlates with a rise of Th1 type cells specific for β-cell associated antigens (7). Cytokines such as IFNγ and TNFα produced by these Th1 cells stimulate recruitment of inflammatory cells capable of β cell destruction (8-10). Hence, down-regulation of the Th1 cells would be a logical approach to combat diabetes. A number of antigen-specific strategies are being considered for modulation of the autoreactive T cells and met with success in NOD mice (11-14) as well as other animal models of IDDM (15, 16). The translation to human, however, is not yet in place and issues such as practicality, side effects, and efficacy have to be overcome in order for the transition to occur.
Recently, it has been have shown that delivery of class II-restricted peptides on immunoglobulins (“Igs”) increases presentation to T cells by 100-fold relative to free peptide (17, 18). This is due to internalization of Igs via Fcγ receptors (“FcγR”) processing within the endosomal compartment and unlimited access of the peptides to newly synthesized MHC molecules (19). Given the fact that Igs are self-molecules, side effects are minimal even when repetitive injections are required. Furthermore, due to their autologous nature, when injected into animals without adjuvant, Igs do not induce inflammatory signals that up-regulate costimulatory molecules on antigen presenting cells (“APCs”) (20). Indeed, adjuvant-free regimens that used Igs to vehicle antigenic peptides have proven effective for induction of tolerance rather than immunity (20-23). For instance, when PLP1 peptide, corresponding to the encephalitogenic sequence 139-151 of proteolipid protein (“PLP”), was expressed on an Ig molecule, the resulting Ig-PLP1 displayed modulatory functions against experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (“EAE”) and suppressed paralytic relapses (20, 22). Furthermore, aggregation of Ig-PLP1 led to cross-linking of FcγR and induction of IL-10 production by the presenting APCs (20, 22). Consequently, aggregated (“agg”) Ig-PLP1 displayed a greater potency against EAE inducing full and expeditious recovery from disease suppressing both the initial severe paralytic phase and the relapses (22). Neutralization of IL-10 by injection of anti-IL-10 antibody reversed the course of action of agg Ig-PLP1 and the disease rebounded indicating that endogenous IL-10 plays a critical role in the prevention of autoimmunity. Moreover, the Ig delivery approach proved effective with a myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (“MOG”) peptide and 1 g-MOG was able to suppress EAE even when disease induction used central nervous system (“CNS”) homogenate which includes multiple epitopes (23). The conclusion that has been drawn from these observations demonstrates that agg Ig chimeras couple endogenous IL-10 to peripheral tolerance setting into motion a multi-modal approach effective against complex autoimmunity involving diverse T cell specificities (20, 22, 23). In the NOD system, IL-10 has been shown to display variable effects on diabetes depending upon the mode of delivery (24-26) and the age of the animal (27-29). Apart from this variable function, the lack of a practical delivery strategy and the ill-defined mechanism underlying the mode of action of IL-10 justifies the search for new approaches to direct endogenous IL-10 against diverse diabetogenic T cells and prevent spontaneous diabetes in the NOD mouse.
Therefore, there is a need for additional treatment regimes for the treatment, and/or prevention, and/or reduction in the risk of developing type 1 diabetes, or the symptoms associated with, or related to, type 1 diabetes, in a subject in need thereof. The discussion that follows discloses methods, compounds, compositions, combinations, and kits that help to fulfill these needs.